Lara Kajs
Dispatches from the Field — The Genocide Report
Washington, DC — 17 April 2025
Sudan’s conflict, now in its second year, has rapidly evolved from a political power struggle into a full-scale civil war, engulfing multiple regions and driving one of the largest displacements and humanitarian crises in the world. Tens of thousands have been killed, millions forcibly displaced, and widespread atrocities reported, including targeted attacks against ethnic communities. External arms flows and limited international intervention have further compounded civilian suffering, making Sudan a critical case study in both humanitarian protection and atrocity prevention.
Sudan’s conflict, now in its second year, represents one of the most severe humanitarian crises in recent memory. What began on 15 April 2023 as a political power struggle between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF), led by General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, and the Rapid Support Forces (RSF), commanded by General Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo (Hemedti), has escalated into a full-scale civil war. Fighting has engulfed regions from Khartoum to Darfur and Gezira, with civilians bearing the brunt of escalating violence, mass atrocities, and a collapsing state infrastructure.
Sudan’s crisis is a stark reminder that inaction amid mass atrocities carries a profound cost for civilians and regional stability.”
Patterns of Violence and Atrocity
The war has been characterized by widespread killings, systematic ethnic targeting, and sexual violence. Non-Arab communities, particularly the Masalit in Darfur, have faced targeted attacks by the RSF, raising concerns that some acts may constitute genocide. Both the SAF and RSF have engaged in war crimes, including indiscriminate attacks on civilian populations, destruction of infrastructure, and looting of cultural heritage sites, such as Sudan’s National Museum.
Sexual violence has been used as a tactic of terror and control, with reports documenting assaults against women, children, and men across conflict zones. These patterns of abuse underscore the urgent need for robust civilian protection mechanisms.
Mass Displacement and Humanitarian Collapse
Sudan is facing one of the largest displacement crises globally. Over 13 million people—roughly one-third of the population—have been forcibly displaced, including 7.5 million internally displaced persons and 5.5 million refugees who have fled to Chad, South Sudan, Egypt, Ethiopia, and the Central African Republic.
Overcrowded camps and informal settlements struggle to provide basic services, including clean water, healthcare, and education. Children are disproportionately affected, with more than 2.8 million under the age of five at heightened risk of exploitation, malnutrition, and disease.
Food insecurity is pervasive, with nearly half of Sudan’s population facing acute hunger. Famine has been confirmed in parts of Darfur, while malnutrition affects over 3.6 million children. Recent attacks on displacement camps have further intensified the humanitarian toll. Economic collapse, outbreaks of disease, and severely underfunded humanitarian operations exacerbate an already catastrophic situation.
External Arms Flows and Escalation
The conflict’s intensity has been fueled by continuous arms transfers, often in violation of existing embargoes. Weapons from countries including China, Russia, Serbia, Türkiye, the United Arab Emirates, and Iran have been supplied to both the SAF and RSF, ranging from drones and artillery systems to small arms.
The influx of advanced weaponry has amplified civilian casualties, prolonged fighting, and increased the lethality of the conflict. The United Nations has condemned ongoing arms flows as unconscionable, with Secretary-General António Guterres emphasizing that external military support directly enables widespread destruction and suffering.
International Response and Political Constraints
International diplomatic efforts have struggled to curb the conflict. Initiatives such as the UK-led conference aimed at establishing a contact group for ceasefire negotiations have been hampered by divisions among regional actors, including Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE, which have supported opposing sides or withheld coordination.
Territorial gains by the RSF in Darfur and the establishment of parallel governance structures have fragmented the political landscape, limiting prospects for a negotiated settlement. Humanitarian response remains constrained by insecurity and underfunding. While international donors have pledged support, the scale of assistance is insufficient to meet the magnitude of need.
Outlook: Protracted Crisis and Urgent Action
As Sudan enters its third year of conflict, there is no clear pathway to resolution. Neither side appears capable of decisive victory, while continued external involvement risks prolonging violence. Without a coordinated international response—including robust humanitarian assistance, strengthened diplomatic engagement, and strict enforcement of arms embargoes—the crisis is likely to worsen, with profound consequences for civilians, regional stability, and global security
Atrocity Prevention Lens
The ongoing Sudanese conflict demonstrates key indicators of mass atrocities, including systematic ethnic targeting, sexual violence, and attacks on civilians. Patterns of escalation, displacement, and weapon proliferation signal heightened risks of both genocidal acts and widespread war crimes. Analysts in atrocity prevention emphasize early intervention, civilian protection, and monitoring of both domestic and external actors as critical tools to reduce harm. Coordinated efforts to prevent arms flows, support humanitarian access, and document violations are essential to mitigating ongoing and future atrocities.
Legal Framework
Protection of Civilians under International Humanitarian Law
International humanitarian law requires that parties to armed conflict distinguish between combatants and civilians, and prohibits attacks on civilians or civilian objects. Indiscriminate assaults, targeted killings, and sexual violence may constitute war crimes under these provisions.
Prohibition of Genocide and Ethnic Targeting
The 1948 Genocide Convention obliges states to prevent and punish acts committed with the intent to destroy national, ethnic, racial, or religious groups. Targeted attacks against the Masalit and other non-Arab communities in Darfur may fall within this legal framework, triggering both national and international accountability obligations.
Humanitarian Access and Rights to Life, Food, and Health
International law obliges warring parties to allow unimpeded humanitarian access and to protect essential civilian needs. Denial of aid, attacks on displaced populations, and obstruction of relief operations constitute violations under both international humanitarian and human rights law.
Accountability and International Enforcement
Investigations and documentation by UN bodies, human rights organizations, and international courts are essential for holding perpetrators accountable. Enforcement mechanisms, including the International Criminal Court and sanctions regimes, play a critical role in deterring further violations and promoting compliance with legal obligations.
Suggested Citation
Kajs, Lara. “Two Years of War in Sudan: Humanitarian Collapse and International Responsibility.” Dispatches from the Field. The Genocide Report, Washington, DC, 17 April 2025.
Photo Credit
Aftermath of fighting in North Darfur by UNAMID. Licensed under CC BY NC ND 2.0.
About TGR
The Genocide Report (TGR) publishes analysis and educational resources on conflict, international law, and atrocity prevention. Its work seeks to bridge academic research, field realities, and public understanding of mass violence and civilian protection.
About the Author
Lara Kajs is the founder and executive director of The Genocide Report, a Washington, DC-based educational nonprofit focused on atrocity prevention and international law. She is the author of several field-based books on conflict, displacement, humanitarian crises, and international humanitarian law, drawing on extensive research and field experience in Yemen, Syria, and Afghanistan. Her writing and public speaking focus on atrocity crimes, forced displacement, the protection of civilians, and the legal frameworks governing armed conflict.